{"id":306,"date":"2011-09-03T15:20:32","date_gmt":"2011-09-03T15:20:32","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/bakeramitchell.com\/?page_id=306"},"modified":"2011-09-03T15:20:32","modified_gmt":"2011-09-03T15:20:32","slug":"rhetoric","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/bakeramitchelljr.com\/index.php\/rhetoric\/","title":{"rendered":"Rhetoric"},"content":{"rendered":"<h1 style=\"text-align: center;\" align=\"center\"><strong>Its\u00a0Role in Popular Advocacy<\/strong><\/h1>\n<p style=\"text-align: left;\" align=\"center\"><strong>Rhetoric \u2013 the new missing link<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The speed and breadth of communications spurred by the internet and the 24\/7\u00a0 news cycle have more tightly coupled researchers and their writings with the lay public.<\/p>\n<p>Heretofore, a scientific discovery would be first reported in a narrowly-circulated, peer-reviewed and edited technical journal.\u00a0Then it would be picked up by professional journalists who would interpret the findings and place them into lay language for slightly more widely distributed popular science magazines.\u00a0Finally, politicians, lawyers, and marketing professionals, skilled in the persuasive art of rhetoric, would craft their arguments using the new discovery to achieve their ends and further their agendas. These finely crafted rhetorical discourses would then appear in political speeches and legislative<br \/>\ndebates, in jury trials as testimony or summations, and in advertising and promotional literature.<\/p>\n<p>The 24\/7 news cycle and the ability of the internet to directly place a discourse in front of<br \/>\n100,000,000 eyeballs (to use a popular phrase) for mere pennies has short-circuited the above transmission from scientist to editor to journalist to layman \u2013 whether the lay audience is a voter, a member of the jury, or a consumer.<\/p>\n<p>A typical study may deal with the economic feasibility of government incentives, with the relative effectiveness of educational practices, or with the effects of certain taxation policies.\u00a0 Regardless of the nature of the study, the investigator can now put his findings into lay language and publish the information on the internet at no cost, and it can be instantly viewed by millions of interested laymen. <em>\u00a0The missing element in this new, faster mode of direct knowledge dissemination by the researcher is the polish provided by<br \/>\nthe application of rhetorical rules and techniques.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>For example, a researcher may discover a negative cost-benefit for government funded business incentives, but a dry recitation of the facts will not have the persuasive punch to penetrate a popular opinion that may erroneously believe such incentives are beneficial.\u00a0 Similarly, research data showing that a widely-used educational practice is actually detrimental will lay fallow in a dry, barren internet article written by the researcher unschooled in rhetorical techniques.<\/p>\n<p>Those whose agenda is counter to the data may employ skilled rhetoricians to deflect or neutralize any finding that is counter to their\u00a0aims.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Rhetoric\u2013 not just fancy words<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rhetoric is the discipline of using written or spoken language to persuade or motivate an audience. (Corbett, 1)\u00a0 As a discipline, the skillful practice of rhetoric consists of applying a number of rules and techniques that have been proven to be most effective over the ages.<br \/>\nElements of rhetoric and its rules deal with:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>content \u2013 what to include and what not to include; how to \u201cinvent\u201d content; where one can find suitable content; what appeals should be used \u2013 emotional, logical, consensual, ethical<\/li>\n<li>sequence \u2013 what is the most effective order for presenting the content; \u00a0the order for rebuttal versus the order for advocacy<\/li>\n<li>rhythm \u2013 how to build and release tension for best effect<\/li>\n<li>style \u2013 which sentence structures have the most effect in what parts of the discourse; choosing among tropes for maximal effect.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Knowledge of rhetorical rules is essential for lawyers, politicians, salesmen, and anyone whose livelihood depends upon their ability to persuade others of their point of view.<br \/>\nEvery college has courses in rhetoric for these professions.\u00a0 They are usually upper level junior or senior courses.<\/p>\n<p>For example at NC State they offer;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\u201cENG 321 Principles of rhetorical theory from its classical origins through the modern period to the present time. Key concepts and theories that provide a critical understanding of the processes of persuasive symbol use;\u201d<\/li>\n<li>\u201cENG 323 This course is designed to enrich the education of English majors and other students by helping them to become more persuasive writers and to learn a set of concepts and principles for reflecting on and analyzing their own and others&#8217; writing. Successful students will 1) become familiar with the basic rhetorical principles in the arts of invention, arrangement, style, and presentation, 2) apply those principles to the analysis of persuasive discourse, 3) apply those principles to their own writing for a variety of audiences and purposes.\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>At UNC Chapel Hill:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Undergraduate: <\/strong>ENGL<strong> <\/strong>131 &#8211; Rhetorical Theory and Practice: A study of rhetorical theories and practices from classical to modern times. Emphasis is on translating theories into practice in contemporary college rhetorics.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Graduate<\/strong>:\u00a0 The Ph.D., building on the M.A., is a more specialized degree, with a major in one of the following areas of study: \u2026\u00a0<strong>Rhetoric and Composition.<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>And at Dook:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>POLSCI 123<\/strong>: Introduction to Political Philosophy (C-N). EI, SS, W An intensive comparative examination of the nature and enduring problems of political philosophy through the confrontation, interpretation, and normative assessment of classic texts from the Greek polis to the present. Selected theorists and their arguments and beliefs within the Western political tradition concerning justice, the good life, freedom, community, power, authority, and others. <strong><em>Careful attention to the ways argument and rhetoric operate in texts of<br \/>\npolitical philosophy<\/em><\/strong>, as well as diverse modes of interpretation. [Ed.<br \/>\nEmphasis added.]<\/li>\n<li>Foreign Languages: Four separate courses in the use of rhetoric in French, German, Italian, and Russian are also offered in those respective departments.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>It is vital to note that rhetoric deals solely with persuasion and has nothing to do with the search for truth. The lawyer must persuade the jury and judge; the politician must persuade the voter; the salesman must persuade the customer.\u00a0 These men\u2019s livelihoods hinge on their ability to persuade, not necessarily upon conveying the whole truth. Certainly, assertions that happen to coincide with reality may make the rhetorician\u2019s job easier, but often there will be no observable facts available that can sustain the assertion.\u00a0 In fact, we might observe that the greatest rewards go to those practitioners of rhetoric who can persuade <em>without<\/em> the benefit of any facts.<\/p>\n<p>About 325 B.C., the Greek philosopher Aristotle authored one of the most highly reproduced texts outlining these rules and techniques, and a number of translations of this text are available for students today. (Aristotle).<\/p>\n<p>Aristotle\u2019s classical text \u201cOn Rhetoric\u201d divides the process of designing a persuasive discourse into three separate tasks:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>discovering what arguments are available and how they will be used to appeal to the audience;<\/li>\n<li>deciding upon the sequence or arrangement of material in the discourse; and<\/li>\n<li>determining the best rhythm and style to use for the various sections of the discourse.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In the 2,300 years since Aristotle, little has changed in this process.\u00a0 Furthermore, the details of accomplishing each of these tasks have changed little.\u00a0 The fine honing of nuanced detail continues, however, as witnessed by the inexorable march of\u00a0 translations of Aristotle\u2019s work:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Cope of Cambridge University in 1877;<\/li>\n<li>Freese of Harvard in 1959;<\/li>\n<li>Cooper by Prentice-Hall in 1960;<\/li>\n<li>Roberts by Random House in 1984;<\/li>\n<li>Kennedy by Oxford Press in 1991<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>to name just a few.<\/p>\n<p>Putting Aristotle\u2019s translations aside, Corbett, a text used at NC State, lists 49 primary texts, 58 books on the history, 41 books on the theory, 47 collections of articles, and 57 books on style in the fourth edition of his popular text.\u00a0 The overwhelming majority of these 256 reference books must be considered current as having been written after the 1950\u2019s!\u00a0 A search of Amazon for books on rhetoric returns an excess of 5,200 hits.\u00a0 Googling \u201crhetoric\u201d returns 35 million hits \u2013 respectable competition for topics such as \u201ccivil war\u201d at 57 million hits or \u201cChrist\u201d at 52 million.<\/p>\n<p>Consider the derisive comment of John Locke in his <em>Essay Concerning Human Understanding<\/em> of 1690 wherein he labels rhetoric as, \u201c\u2026rhetoric, that powerful instrument of error and deceit,\u2026\u201d and disparages its use.\u00a0\u00a0The full context of Locke\u2019s remarks makes clear his biased, limiting definition of rhetoric as that of \u201cfigurative speech\u201d or \u201callusion\u201d with a grudging acknowledgement of its abilities of producing \u201corder and clearness.\u201d\u00a0 The following quote of Locke\u2019s offers complete proof of his distain for the rules of rhetoric both in the abstract and in his avoidance for personal use.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&#8220;Seventhly, language is often abused by figurative speech. Since wit and fancy find easier entertainment in the world than dry truth and real knowledge, figurative speeches and allusion in language will hardly be admitted as an imperfection or abuse of it. I confess, in discourses where we seek rather pleasure and delight than information and improvement, such ornaments as are borrowed from them can scarce pass for faults. But yet if we<br \/>\nwould speak of things as they are, we must allow that all the art of rhetoric, besides order and clearness; all the artificial and figurative application of words eloquence hath invented, are for nothing else but to insinuate wrong ideas, move the passions, and thereby mislead the judgment; and so indeed are perfect cheats: and therefore, however laudable or allowable oratory may render them in harangues and popular addresses, they are certainly, in all discourses that pretend to inform or instruct, wholly to be avoided; and where truth and knowledge are concerned, cannot but be thought a great fault, either of the language or person that makes use of them. What and how various they are, will<br \/>\nbe superfluous here to take notice; the books of rhetoric which abound in the world, will instruct those who want to be informed: only I cannot but observe how little the preservation and improvement of truth and knowledge is the care and concern of mankind; since the arts of fallacy are endowed and preferred. It is evident how much men love to deceive and be deceived, since rhetoric, that powerful instrument of error and deceit, has its established professors, is publicly taught, and has always been had in great reputation: and I doubt not but it will be thought great boldness, if not brutality, in me to have said thus much against it. Eloquence, like the fair sex, has too prevailing beauties<br \/>\nin it to suffer itself ever to be spoken against. And it is in vain to find fault with those arts of deceiving, wherein men find pleasure to be deceived.&#8221; [zzzzzzzzz]<\/p>\n<p>Locke sees the world drowning in a sea of texts on rhetoric with scarcely a single\u00a0 text on truth as a life-saving splinter. Later in his essay Locke proposes a number of remedies for<br \/>\navoiding misunderstandings which focus upon word choices and the careful definitions of one\u2019s terms. Locke\u2019s remedies, however, can apply only to an honest author whose focus is on the truth.\u00a0He suggests no defense against the sword of rhetoric <em>nor does he acknowledge that that this sword can be turned to offensive purposes by the truth seeker against the charlatan<\/em>. \u00a0He readily admits that the attention shown to rhetoric is justified by its proven power and usefulness, but scorns its use to his own advantage.<\/p>\n<p><em>We ignore the power of rhetoric at our peril.<\/em><\/p>\n<p>To confine ourselves to careful definitions and eschew the lessons of persuasive techniques taught by the 2,000 years of the study of rhetoric is to bring a rather dull knife to a gunfight.<\/p>\n<p>Locke ignores the admonition of his predecessor Francis Bacon (1561-1626) who describes paths to achieve wisdom, wit, morality, and depth but states that rhetorical skill is required if one is to gain the ability \u201cto contend.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><strong>Rhetoric \u2013 an empirically grounded science<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Rhetoric is universally described as an \u201cart\u201d by its practitioners and teachers. Such an adjective as \u201cart\u201d serves to elevate it above the mundane necessities of grubbing up empirical evidence of its effectiveness should one wish to consider it a \u201cscience.\u201d\u00a0 For a \u201cpowerful instrument of error and deceit,\u201d a veneer of refinement and an intellectual positioning alongside poetry and the visual arts is certainly in tune with Locke\u2019s characterization.\u00a0 The \u201cart of rhetoric\u201d is a phrase intended to mentally position it with the \u201clanguage arts\u201d or the \u201cvisual arts\u201d or even the \u201cculinary arts.\u201d\u00a0 How nice and<br \/>\nrefined!\u00a0 How could an \u201cart\u201d possibly be the weapon of choice for the sinister evil doer?\u00a0 Likewise, the factually-minded seeker of truth will undoubtedly eschew the use of a mere art form to further his aims.<\/p>\n<p>What clever marketing by the rhetoricians!\u00a0 Elevate the image of rhetoric to one of<br \/>\nesteem and ascetic purposes to promote the acceptability of its issue by the gullible, while simultaneously cloaking it under a robe suggestive of uselessness to discourage its application by one\u2019s empirically-minded opponents.<\/p>\n<p>Be not fooled.\u00a0 Experimental psychology and behavior analysis have empirically proven Aristotle\u2019s laws of rhetoric for persuasive discourse to be as firmly grounded as are Newton\u2019s laws in mechanics and gravitational physics.<\/p>\n<p>Far from an \u201cart,\u201d rhetoric is an empirically grounded science with an experimental evidentiary base as solid as nuclear physics and with the possibility of as much, if not more, power to bring about change.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThe pen is mightier than the sword\u201d should carry one caveat \u2013<em>as long as you pay attention to the laws of rhetoric.<\/em>\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Locke ignores the fact that rhetoric itself is a neutral tool of persuasion \u2013 that it is the wielder of this tool \u2013 like the author wielding the pen &#8211; who governs its use as to good or evil, to truth or deceit.<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><strong>Rhetoric \u2013 a few example rules.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>It is not the purpose of this paper to try and summarize the 562 pages of rhetorical rules and techniques in Corbett or even the 206 pages on the subtopic of style by Williams.\u00a0 Rather its purpose is to promote more study of this tool by those not presently versed in its power.<\/p>\n<p>Hopefully a few examples may prompt more study by those of you with backgrounds in the hard sciences that left you totally unarmed against those \u201cmen who love to deceive\u201d and who use this \u201cpowerful instrument of deceit.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>The following examples are presented in no particular order, and for each rule an example of its infraction is given for illustrative purposes.\u00a0 These counterexamples are not meant to embarrass or ridicule their authors (who shall remain unnamed), and it should be noted that they have a mob of accompanying writers who trample the techniques of rhetoric just as effectively.\u00a0The fault lies not with these writers but with their colleges who did<br \/>\nnot require a course in rhetoric for the biologist, the engineer, the economist, or the statistician.\u00a0Heretofore, it has been the sole province of the lawyers, the political<br \/>\nscientists, and the marketing programs.\u00a0\u00a0Catch-up by would-be bloggers is hereby urged.<\/p>\n<p><strong>A Rule &#8211; avoid stating the opponent\u2019s POINT<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>A Rule \u2013 appeal to authority<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>A Rule \u2013 readers expect your POINT <span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">early<\/span> in the document<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>A Rule \u2013 the last words of a paragraph stick<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The trusting academician often feels obliged to fully state the opponent\u2019s POINT before making his counter arguments.\u00a0 He feels that this is only \u201cfair\u201d and will help convince the objective, unbiased reader of his honesty and forthrightness and will engender trust in the reader for his up-coming rebuttal based on his findings which, he will claim, disprove the assertions of his opponent.<\/p>\n<p>But not even the Marques of Queensbury suggested that we allow our opponent to land the first blow.\u00a0Or any blow, for that matter.\u00a0 Much less that we land a blow for him upon ourselves!<\/p>\n<p>Why begin your discourse with something similar to the following?<\/p>\n<blockquote><p><em>\u201cProf. Al Mighty of Hallowed University has recently published his extensive study of ABC which\u00a0he claims\u00a0conclusively proves that MNOP. In it, the professor (more description of the study by XYZ.)<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>In independent work by this author, Instructor at Sweat State U, an investigation into both Prof. Mighty\u2019s methods and into the phenomena itself shows, to the contrary, that\u2026\u201d<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>First of all, your reader may never have heard of Prof. Mighty and his erroneous work.\u00a0 Why enlighten your audience to the existence of fallacious work? \u00a0Why heap laurels upon him if he is wrong? If you have independently repeated the study and come to a different conclusion you should advocate your own work.<\/p>\n<p>Secondly, a long introduction summarizing some erroneous work, particularly without qualification, may give the audience the impression you are verifying the work. The reader may put down the article thinking he has understood your POINT before ever seeing that you have a counter-point.<\/p>\n<p>Third, an adjunct to the rule is that if you absolutely have to state your opponent\u2019s POINT, never state it first in the discourse. The beginning statements should carry the weight of your POINT \u2013 frequently, the ending phrase of the ending sentence of the opening paragraph.<\/p>\n<p>Only after building your case and presenting your evidence might you causally mention the opposing views qualified with your counter points.\u00a0 And if he outranks you, you are under no obligation to point that out.<\/p>\n<p>Lastly studies show that readers recall the final phrase of a paragraph more frequently than any other.<\/p>\n<p><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>Breaking the Rules \u2013 an illustration<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Actual infractions of these important rules are illustrated by the opening paragraphs of this article:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p><strong><em>Charter Schools Judged Unfairly, Experts Say<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<p><em>By ***CENSORED***<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">Two 2004 reports cast a disparaging light on charter schools in North Carolina<\/span>, but critiques of those reports say they are riddled with error and fail to factor in the fact that charter schools intentionally target students who are <span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">failing to <\/span><\/em><em><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">perform in traditional classrooms<\/span>.\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">University of Connecticut Professor\u00a0 Robert Bifulco and Duke UniversityProfessor Helen Ladd for the Terry Sanford Institute authored one of those reports, finding <\/span><em><span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">that state charter schools are \u201clacking.\u201d<\/span>\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">\u201cParents often expect charter schools to provide a stronger academic experience for their children than traditional \u00a0public schools,<\/span> but <span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">that is typically not the case,<\/span>\u201d Ladd, a professor of public policy studies and economics told her campus newspaper.<span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"> \u201cOur study finds that charter school students perform less well on average in charter schools than they would have in traditional public schools and<\/span> <span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">the negative effects of attending a charter school are large.\u201d<\/span><\/em><\/p>\n<p><em><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">Another study, conducted by Caroline Hoxby, on behalf of the American Federation of Teachers<\/span>, <span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">rendered similar findings.<\/span><\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>The blue highlights show the <span style=\"color: #0000ff;\"><em>opponents<\/em>\u2019 POINTS<\/span> while the red highlights show phrases in <span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">key positions that will be remembered<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, after 162 words in four opening paragraphs that \u00a0trumpet the adversarial\u00a0POINTS and which each end in a negative statement, and after\u00a0extolling the authority of the adversaries by citing their august professorial positions at UConn and Duke, this article\u2019s author finally begins to cite the contradictory study.<\/p>\n<p>But the reader has now been subjected to very fine advertisements for the opposing point and has had the author even vouch for the \u00a0creditability of Ladd, Bifulco, and Hoxby. Thank goodness the author restrained his urge to reveal Hoxby\u2019s position at Harvard as a full professor.<\/p>\n<p>The author erroneously credits Bifulco as a \u201cProfessor\u201d at \u201cUniversity of Connecticut;\u201d\u00a0 he is two steps down as an assistant professor. The author credits Ladd as a \u201cProfessor\u201d at \u201cDuke University\u201d in an \u201cInstitute;\u201d she actually holds two professorships. The author credits Hoxby as conducting a study for the \u201cAmerican Federation of Teachers;\u201d she is also a full professor.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, the author introduces the opponent, Craig Newmark, as merely an NCSU \u201cEconomist\u201d perhaps not wanting to draw the comparison that Dr. Newmark is only an Associate Professor (a notch higher than Bifulco!). The author resoundingly looses the appeal to authority. As if the opposition had not been given enough ink, the author later devotes an entire paragraph quoting another of Ladd\u2019s claims.<\/p>\n<blockquote><p><em><span style=\"color: #0000ff;\">\u201cIn a study that followed NorthCarolina students for several years, professors Robert Bifulco and Helen Ladd found that students in charter schools actually made considerably<\/span> <span style=\"color: #ff0000;\">smaller achievement gains in charter schools than they would have in traditional public schools,\u201d<\/span> the NEA website states.<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>While the author later rebuts this claim, it has, no doubt, been absorbed by the reader, along with the honorifics repeated for the investigators.<\/p>\n<p>Firstly, Aristotle would have asked why even bother constructing the article as a rebuttal and thereby advertising the opposition.\u00a0 Newmark got his own data and did his own analysis and came to his own conclusions.\u00a0 Write about that.\u00a0 The POINT should have been Newmark\u2019s findings that support charter schools.\u00a0 Chances are good that the reader may never have heard of Ladd, et al.<\/p>\n<p>Remember, the author\u2019s intended POINT was that Ladd, et. al, did a lousy job and were wrong.\u00a0 But the opening four paragraphs, instead, make Ladd\u2019s POINTS, appeal to Ladd\u2019s authority, and stick negatives about charter schools in the readers\u2019 minds. How much more effective would have been an article entitled\u201cLatest Study Shows Students in Charter Schools Excel\u201d that opens the issue with the fact that now sufficient data is available about charter school performance and shows that their students are doing better than those of traditional schools.<\/p>\n<p>If the Ladd article had gotten a great deal of press and a specific rebuttal was felt absolutely necessary, a third party could have written an \u201cobjective\u201d comparison of the Ladd study and the later Newmark study.\u00a0 Newmark\u2019s criticisms of Ladd are tainted by the fact that he has his own contradictory study and is obligated to find error with Ladd \u2013 else his study must be flawed.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Breaking The Rules \u2013 another illustration<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Aristotle and Corbett would have given a D- to another article that sought to challenge the UNC-Chapel Hill diversity movement.<\/p>\n<p>The author opens with two-and-one-half paragraphs that lay out UNC\u2019s POINTS in their quest for diversity. These opening 138 words include quotes from the Chancellor and recommendations from the Task Force on Diversity.\u00a0 A nice advertisement for diversity, indeed.<\/p>\n<p>The author then speculates about well UNC is doing toward accomplishing its diversity goal and wonders how much students at non-diverse schools are really handicapped by their experiences.<\/p>\n<p>At last, 438 words into his 663 word article, the author finally states his POINT.<\/p>\n<blockquote><p><em>\u2026people don\u2019t have to learn about all the details of other people\u2019s lives and background\u2014 something that is impossible, no matter how devoted we are to \u201cdiversity\u201d \u2014 in order to interact positively with them\u2026<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>The author does ask the question that is most on point:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p><em>&#8220;&#8230;\u00a0is\u00a0[there] any evidence or reason to believe that students who attend highly<\/em><em> diverse institutions are better equipped to deal with the world than are<\/em><em> students who attend colleges\u2026&#8221;<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>but fails to follow up with any counter evidence.\u00a0 Instead there is an appeal to his personal authority by the statement \u201cThe better approach, both in economic and social policy, is to allow things to happen spontaneously, based on individual action\u201d for which assertion he relies on an appeal to popular opinion, \u201cFreedom works remarkably well.\u201d\u00a0 However the popularity of this appeal seems to be waning, else he would not have felt bound to write his article.<\/p>\n<p>Thus the author tramples the rules that require making your POINT early, avoiding\u00a0 stating the opposition\u2019s point, and making as many appeals as are appropriate.<\/p>\n<p><strong>A Rule \u2013 persuasion requires an appeal<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Aristotle discusses a number of appeals by which one can seek to persuade his audience.\u00a0 Among these are appeals to logic and reason, appeals to popular opinion, appeals to\u00a0vanity, appeals to authority, appeals to experience, appeals to emotion, and appeals to ethical considerations.<\/p>\n<p>For example, Aristotle\u2019s appeal to reason persuaded everyone that heavy objects fell to earth faster than light objects because there was a greater downward force on the heavy object. This assertion of Aristotle\u2019s held sway until actual experiments in the 1500\u2019s proved that all objects fell at the same speed.\u00a0 Experience should trump reason and logic, but<br \/>\nmost people place over-reliance on reason and logic.<\/p>\n<p>If we look at an advertisement for a kid\u2019s basketball shoe, we will see a number of these appeals at work. A famous basketball star (an authority) tells us that everyone knows (popular opinion) that XYZ shoes will make you a better player (vanity).\u00a0 Be the first on your block (vanity) to rush out and get a pair while they are on sale (emotion) because they will cost more later (logic).<\/p>\n<p>A simple appeal to emotion in an attorney\u2019s closing argument where he pretended to speak for a little dead girl calling down from heaven was worth $14 million in a medical malpractice suit that had no basis whatsoever in fact.<\/p>\n<p>Watch an ad for a Ronco Bass-O-Matic or any other item and list the variety of appeals being used. \u00a0Read a skilled politician\u2019s speech and note the appeals.<\/p>\n<p>If Jay and Madison had authored the Federalist Blogs ignoring their skilled use of rhetorical rules, we would probably still be playing \u201cRule Britannia!\u201d\u00a0 Read Jefferson\u2019s first draft of the Declaration of Independence with an eye towards identifying the various rhetorical devices &#8211;\u00a0 once you know your points and the accepted rules, it almost writes itself.<br \/>\n<strong>References<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Aristotle, <em>On Rhetoric, <\/em>Trans. George Kennedy. New York: Oxford UP, 1991<\/p>\n<p>Corbett, Edward, <em>Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student<\/em>, Fourth Edition, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999<\/p>\n<p>Williams, Joseph M. <em>Style: Toward Clarity and Grace<\/em>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<table border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>ENG (<\/strong><strong><a href=\"http:\/\/www2.acs.ncsu.edu\/reg_records\/crs_cat\/COM.html#COM321\">COM<\/a>)<br \/>\n321<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Survey of Rhetorical Theory<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><em>3(3-0-0) F<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"3\"><em>Preq: COM 201 or permission of instructor<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td colspan=\"3\">Principles of rhetorical theory from its classical origins<br \/>\nthrough the modern period to the present time. Key concepts and theories that<br \/>\nprovide a critical understanding of the processes of persuasive symbol use.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h1><\/h1>\n<p><strong>Spring 2006<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>ENG 323.001: Writing in the Rhetorical Tradition<\/p>\n<p>Tuesdays &amp; Thursdays, 11.45 &#8211; 1.00PM Tompkins Hall G118<\/p>\n<p>[<a href=\"http:\/\/www4.ncsu.edu\/~dmrieder\/files\/ENG_323_001_RIEDER_SPRING06.pdf\">Syllabus<\/a>]<\/p>\n<p>This course is designed to enrich the education of English majors and other<br \/>\nstudents by helping them to become more persuasive writers and to learn a set of concepts and principles for reflecting on and analyzing their own and<br \/>\nothers&#8217; writing. Successful students will 1) become familiar with the basic<br \/>\nrhetorical principles in the arts of invention, arrangement, style, and<br \/>\npresentation, 2) apply those principles to the analysis of persuasive<br \/>\ndiscourse, 3) apply those principles to their own writing for a variety of<br \/>\naudiences and purposes<\/p>\n<p>In addition, this course is an opportunity to develop personal and professional skills that are useful for any writer. Students should show 1) willingness to take initiative and go beyond minimum requirements, 2) ability to work both independently and in small groups, 3) willingness to contribute to the success of your colleagues, 4) commitment to professionalism, including producing polished work, meeting deadlines consistently, and adhering to requirements and guidelines.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>University of North Carolina at Wilmington<\/p>\n<p><strong>Spring 2014<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/seanet.uncw.edu\/TEAL\/bwckctlg.p_disp_course_detail?cat_term_in=201420&amp;subj_code_in=ENG&amp;crse_numb_in=389\" target=\"_blank\">ENG 389 &#8211; Rhetorical Theory since 1900<\/a> Rhetorical Theory since 1900. Prerequisite or corequisite: ENG 204 or ENG 205 or consent of instructor. Survey of major theories in rhetoric as they apply to written discourse from the start of the twentieth century to the present.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-decoration: underline;\">ENG 496 &#8211; Senior Sem Writing\/Rhetoric Senior Seminar in Writing\/Rhetoric<\/span>. Prerequisite: ENG 204 or ENG 205 and junior or senior standing, or consent of instructor. Intensive study of a theme, issue, or genre in writing\/rhetoric. Provides significant student engagement. Required of English majors in Professional Writing Option; fulfills seminar requirement for Teacher Licensure. Satisfies University Studies III: Common Requirements\/Capstone Course. Partially satisfies University Studies III: Building Competencies\/Writing Intensive.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/seanet.uncw.edu\/TEAL\/bwckctlg.p_disp_course_detail?cat_term_in=201420&amp;subj_code_in=ENG&amp;crse_numb_in=316\" target=\"_blank\">ENG 316 &#8211; Analyzing Style<\/a> Analyzing Style. Analysis of written style, emphasizing rhetorical principles and textual features. Application of stylistic principles in the creation of written texts<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/seanet.uncw.edu\/TEAL\/bwckctlg.p_disp_course_detail?cat_term_in=201420&amp;subj_code_in=ENG&amp;crse_numb_in=303\" target=\"_blank\">ENG 303 &#8211; Reading and Writing Arguments<\/a> Reading and Writing Arguments. Instruction in rhetorical principles and their use in both analyzing and constructing persuasive texts<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Its\u00a0Role in Popular Advocacy Rhetoric \u2013 the new missing link The speed and breadth of communications spurred by the internet and the 24\/7\u00a0 news cycle have more tightly coupled researchers and their writings with the lay public. Heretofore, a scientific discovery would be first reported in a narrowly-circulated, peer-reviewed and edited technical journal.\u00a0Then it would [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","template":"","meta":{"_et_pb_use_builder":"","_et_pb_old_content":"","_et_gb_content_width":"","footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-306","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/bakeramitchelljr.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/306","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/bakeramitchelljr.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/bakeramitchelljr.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/bakeramitchelljr.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/bakeramitchelljr.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=306"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/bakeramitchelljr.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/306\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/bakeramitchelljr.com\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=306"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}